A new report by the European Council of Doctoral Candidates and Junior Researchers (Eurodoc) has found wide gaps in what PhD candidates earn across Europe. It is described as the first comprehensive overview of PhD income.The study looked at the earnings of first-year doctoral candidates in 2024–25 across 26 countries. Eurodoc, a Brussels-based federation representing early-career researchers, published it in September.
Salaries, scholarships and mixed models
Pay comes as salaries, scholarships or a mixture of both. Employed candidates pay tax on their income, so take-home pay is lower, but they may receive pension entitlements and parental leave. Scholarship money is generally exempt from tax, though it may not come with other benefits. The cost of living, which differs widely between places, also matters. Norbert Bencze, Eurodoc president and a report author, said collecting comparable data on remuneration is notoriously difficult and that the aim is to highlight disparities and encourage further data collection.
Starting pay across Europe
The table lists gross annual starting remuneration reported by Eurodoc, arranged from highest to lowest in euros.
| S. No. | Country | Euros (€) | Type |
| 1 | Denmark | 58,013.90 | Employment |
| 2 | Germany | 55,556.88 | Employment |
| 3 | Belgium | 50,799.96 | Employment |
| 4 | Norway | 49,727.83–51,118.32 | Employment |
| 5 | Switzerland | 49,675.18 | Employment |
| 6 | Austria | 44,580.00 | Employment |
| 7 | Luxembourg | 44,400.00 | Employment |
| 8 | Netherlands | 36,708.00 | Employment |
| 9 | Sweden | 33,718.65–35,959.45 | Employment |
| 10 | Slovenia | 27,991.44 | Employment |
| 11 | France | 26,400.00 | Employment |
| 12 | Finland | 25,743.60 | Employment |
| 13 | Spain | 24,360.00 | Scholarship |
| 14 | Ireland | 21,996.00 | Scholarship |
| 15 | Estonia | 21,600.00 | Employment |
| 16 | Italy | 16,243.00 | Scholarship |
| 17 | Lithuania | 15,960.00 | Scholarship |
| 18 | Portugal | 15,115.68 | Scholarship |
| 19 | Slovakia | 13,170.00 | Scholarship |
| 20 | Czech Republic | 12,357.96 | Scholarship |
| 21 | Latvia | 12,000.00 | Scholarship |
| 22 | Poland | 9,622.94 | Scholarship |
| 23 | Romania | 8,448.88 | Scholarship |
| 24 | Bulgaria | 8,283.21 | Scholarship |
| 25 | Hungary | 4,615.38 | Scholarship |
| 26 | Ukraine | 2,263.44 | Scholarship |
Germany’s figure is full-time equivalent, as candidates there often work on contracts below 100% FTE. Ukraine’s figure is for 2026. Norway reports €49,727.83 to €51,118.32, while Switzerland reports €49,675.18. Cyprus, Greece and Malta have no comprehensive national system.
Brain drain and Estonia’s reform
Pil Maria Saugmann, an academic governance researcher and former Eurodoc president, said the figures contribute to a brain drain towards Scandinavia and the Benelux countries from many other parts of Europe. She said Estonia has shown the trend can be bucked. A 2022 doctoral education reform replaced a student stipend of about €8,000 (about US$9,000) a year with a guaranteed salary of roughly 2.5 times that amount. Saugmann said the change boosted applications for doctoral positions and strengthened links with industry.